1. This is the telling of the inquiry for information by
Herodotus from Halicarnassus, so that neither those that
people do are obliterated by time, nor the great and
wonderful deeds, approved by both Greeks and barbarians,
lose their glory, and especially the reason and all the
rest for which they fighted against each other.

The Persian scholars say that the Phoenicians are
responsible for the disagreement. That's because they,
according to Persians, came from the so-called Red Sea
into our seas, and after establishing themselves in the same
place that they inhabit even now, started immediately to
make long journeys, and to be carrying Egyptian and
Assyrian merchandise; and among other places they even
reached Argos; which, at that time, was ahead of all cities
that exist in the land that is now called Greece. So the
Phoenicians, having arrived at Argos, were selling their
merchadise there. Now, at around the fifth or sixth day
after they had arrived, and having sold out nearly everything,
some women came to the seashore, and among many others,
even the king's daughter; whose name is -- and the Greeks
agree on that, too -- Io, of Inachos. The women stood by the
stern of the ship and were buying the merchandise to their
heart's content; and the Phoenicians, after having encouraged
each other, rushed towards them. Now, while most of the
women escaped, Io, plus some others, were captured.
So after putting them in the ship they left, sailing off
towards Egypt.

2. Thus, say the Persians -- but not the Greeks -- that Io
arrived in Egypt, and this was the first in a series of
wrong-doings. After these events, they say that some Greeks
(whose name they don't know to tell us) came up to Tyros
of Phoenice and abducted Europe, the king's daughter.
I assume that those were Cretans. Thus they were all even;
however, after these events [they say that] the Greeks became
accountable for the second wrong-doing; for after they sailed
with a long ship [Argo] to Aea of Colchid, and to river
Phasis, and after doing all those for which they came, took
away the king's daughter, Medea. Subsequently, the Colchean
king sent a herald to Greece in order to ask reparation and
to demand that they give his daughter back. But the Greeks
replied that neither they received any reparation for the
abduction of Io from Argos; nor, therefore, would they give
anything back to the Colcheans.

3. So they say that in the second generation after these events,
Alexander, Priam's son, who had heard of the above, wanted to
take a woman by abducting one from Greece, knowing full well
that he would not make reparations, just like the Greeks.
So when he abducted Helen, the Greeks figured that they should
first send messengers to demand Helen's return and ask reparation
for the abduction. The Persians, after the messengers advanced
their demands, riposted with the taking away of Medea, for whom
neither they received any reparations, nor did the Greeks,
although they were asked, want to make reparations to anyone.

4. Up to this point the issue was only about the taking away
of women from each other, while from there on [they say that]
the Greeks are greatly to blame; because they first went
on an expedition against Asia rather than Persians
against Europe. Now, they think the abduction of women
is the work of unjust men; however, hurrying to
punish the abductors is silly -- wise people are not
concerned with abductions: for it is clear that, if the
women themselves didn't want, they woundn't be taken
away. Therefore, say the Persians, those that abduct
women in Asia are not punished in any way, while
the Greeks, because of a Lacedaemonian woman, mustered
a great fleet, and then, coming to Asia, they demolished
Priam's power. From then on, they considered the Greek
race to be hostile to them. For Perians consider Asia
and the barbarian nations that dwell in it familiar
to them, while Europe and the Greek race they consider
them as separate.

5. Thus, Persians say that matters happened in this way, and in
their opinion, it was the conquest of Troy that started off
their hostility against the Greeks. But concerning Io, Phoenicians
do not agree with Persians; for they say that they didn't make
use of force to lead her to Egypt, but instead, since the time she
was in Argos she had intercourse with the captain of the ship;
and when she learned she was pregnant, feeling shame towards
her parents, she decided to travel together with the Phoenicians
on her own will, so that her condition would not be disclosed.

Now, this is what Persians and Phoenicians alike say;
as for myself, I do not intend to say that events happened
this way or that; however, I do know the one who first started
the injustice against the Greeks, and after I point him out
I shall continue with my telling of the story, mentioning in
a similar manner both small and large cities of people. For
those that used to be large in the past have become small now;
and those that are great in my days, used to be small earlier.
Knowing that human happiness never stays unchanging forever,
I will mention both kinds [of cities] equally.

6. Croesus was of Lydian descent, son of Alyattes,
and ruler of nations that are within river Halys, which flows
from the south among Syrians and Paphlagonians,
and issues by north wind to the so-called Euxinus [the Black]
Sea. This Croesus was the first barbarian, as far as we know,
who subdued some Greeks and made them pay tribute, while
others he made friends with. On the one hand
he destroyed the Ionians, Aeolians, and Dorians,
those that inhabited Asia, while on the other hand he made
friends with the Lacedaemonians. Now, before the ruling of
Croesus, all Greeks were free; for, the army of the Cimmerians,
which arrived to Ionia before the time of Croesus, did not
destroy the cities, but only made raids, taking
lootings.

7. So the dominion, which belonged to the Heracleidae, passed
to the dynasty of Croesus, which was called "the Mermnadae."
Candaules, whom the Greeks call Myrsilos, descendant of
Alcaeos (son of Heracles), was the ruler of Sardis.
Agron, son of Ninos, son of Belos, son of Alkaeos, was the first
of the Heracleidae to become king of Sardis, while Candaules,
son of Myrsos, was the last one. Those that ruled this
country before Agron were descendants of Lydos, son of Atys,
from whom the entire district was called Lydia -- earlier it
was called Meia. From those, the Heracleidae, took the dominion
by means of an oracle, as descendants of a woman, slave of
Iardanos, and of Heracles, ruling for twenty two
generations of men, and five hundred and five years,
son succeeding father in power, up to Candaules,
son of Myrsos.

8. Now this Candaules fell in love with his own wife,
and being in love he believed she was the prettiest among all
other women. While he held such beliefs, there was among his
bodyguards one Gyges, son of Daskylos, who was one of his
favorites, so much so that Candaules was entrusting to this
Gyges even the most important issues -- he was even boasting
to him about his wife's look. So after not very long time
(for something bad was about to happen to Candaules), he was
saying to Gyges the following: "Gyges, since I don't think
you believe me when I tell you about my wife's look,
(for people do not believe in their ears as much as in their eyes),
do [what is needed] so that you see her naked." Gyges, stunned,
said: "Master, what you say is not sane -- are you ordering me
to see my own Mistress naked? Together with her chiton,
a woman takes off her shamefullness, too. People have long ago
discovered rules, that we must learn; one of which is that one
should only see what belongs to oneself. I, for my part,
am persuaded that she is the most beautiful woman of all, and
I beg you not to ask me to do unlawful things."

9. So the one speaking thus was declining, being afraid that
something bad would happen to him because of these, while the
other one was answering to him thus: "Have courage, Gyges, and
don't be afraid neither of me, thinking that I tell you these to
test you, nor of my wife, that you will be damaged because of her.
For I will contrive a way so that she never learns that she was seen
by you. I will place you in the house where we sleep, behind the
open door. After I enter, my wife will come to the bed, too.
Now, near the entrance there is a chair, on which she will place
her clothes, as she takes them off one by one, while you will be
watching her at your leisure. Then, when she proceeds from
the chair towards the bed, she will turn her back to you,
while you, from there, will walk through the door -- carefully,
so as not to let her see you going out.

10. Thus, Gyges, being unable to escape, was getting prepared;
while Candaules, when he thought it is time for bed, lead
Gyges in the house. Soon after that, the woman came, too.
While she entered and started placing her clothes [on the chair],
Gyges was watching. Now, when the woman turned her back to him
to go to the bed, he slipped out secretly, but the woman
saw him going out. So, after she learned what her husband had done,
she neither screamed out of shame, nor she wanted this to be
known, having in mind to take revenge from Candaules. For,
according to Lydians, and nearly all the other barbarians,
it is a great shame even for a man to be seen naked.

11. At that time, since she thus didn't disclose anything, she had her
peace of mind. But as soon as it became day, she gathered the most
faithful among her people in the house, and after preparing them she
called Gyges; who, thinking that she didn't know anything of what
had happened, accepted the call; after all, it was his custom to
always attend to the queen when she called him. Now when Gyges
arrived the woman said to him: "Now Gyges, I give you two roads
to choose from, you turn to whichever one you want. Either, after
killing Candaules, you will have both me and the Lydian kingdom,
or you yourself immediately must die, so that you are not always
persuaded by Candaules, and so as to not see from now on those
that do not befit you seeing. So, either the one who plotted these
must perish, or you, who saw me naked and did something that you
shouldn't do." Gyges, for a while was speechless, but afterwards
was begging her to not force him to make such a choice. When
he saw, however, that he could not persuade her, and that
it was indeed time to choose either to kill his Master, or
to be killed by others, he opted for his own survival. So,
then he asked [the queen] saying the following:
"Since you ask me to kill my own Master against my will,
tell me and let me hear in which way we will attempt this."
And she asnwered to him: "From the same place the attack
will be made like the one that he chose to display me naked,
and the operation will be performed while he is asleep."

12. So, once they arranged the plot, after it was night time
(for Gyges could not free himself, nor find some way to escape,
but he had to either die himself, or kill Candaules),
he followed the woman to the chamber, and she, after giving
him a knife, hid him behind the same door. Afterwards,
and while Candaules was resting, [Gyges] sneaked out,
and after killing him, he was endowed both the woman and the
kingship; the same Gyges whom his contemporary, Archilochus
from Paros, mentioned in an iambic trimeter.

13. Thus he took the reign, and was strengthened by the oracle
of Delphi. For when the Lydians became furious with that
which happened to Candaules, and took up arms,
the supporters of Gyges agreed on the following with
the rest of Lydians: should the oracle declare him king
of the Lydians, then he should reign; if however not, then
he should give the power back to the Heracleidae. Indeed the
oracle declared him king, and thus Gyges reigned. However,
said the Pythian priestess, there will come vengeance for the
Heracleidae in the fifth generation of Gyges; a pronouncement
of which neither the Lydians nor their kings took any account,
until it was fulfilled.

14. Thus the Mermnadae took the sovereignty, after usurping
it from the Heracleidae, while Gyges, having the sovereign power,
sent not a few offerings to Delphi. Of those offerings that
are made of silver, most of them are in Delphi;
but besides silver he offered plenty of gold, too, the most
worthwhile of which to be mentioned is the dedicated
golden kraters [wine bowls], six in number. Now these are kept
in the treasury of the Corinthians, and weigh thirty
talents; but to tell the truth, the treasure does not belong
to the people of Corinth, but to Kypselos, son of Eetion.
And so, this Gyges is the first among the barbarians
whom we know to have sent offerings to Delphi after Midas,
son of Gordion, king of Phrygia. For Midas, too, offered
the royal throne on which he used to sit and administer justice,
which is well worth looking at; this throne is in the same
place as the kraters of Gyges. The gold and the silver
that Gyges dedicated is called by the Delphians "Gygian",
after the name of the donor.

15. So he, too, upon assuming power, invaded with army
in Miletus and Smyrna, and seized the city of Colophon;
but no other great deed was made by him, although he
reigned for forty-but-two years. We will leave therefore him
aside, having mentioned enough, and I will talk about Ardys,
son of Gyges, who took the kingship after Gyges.
This one invaded in Priene and Miletus, and it was during
his ruling in Sardis that the Cimmerians, driven out of their
abodes by the nomad Scythians, arrived in Asia, and seized
Sardis, all except the citadel.

16. Ardys, who reigned for fifty-but-one years, was
succeeded by his son, Sadyattes, who reigned for twelve
years, and was succeeded by Alyattes. This one fought
against Cyaxares (a descendant of Deioces) and the Medes,
drove the Cimmerians out of Asia, seized Smyrna, which
had been built by the city of Colophon, and invaded Clazomenae.
From the latter he did not come off as he wished, but suffered
a great disaster; he recovered, however, while he was in power
with other deeds, the most noteworthy of which are the following.

17. He fought against the Milesians, inheriting the war
from his father. And so, while attacking, he was besieging
Miletus as follows: when there was ripe fruit on earth,
then he would invade with his army; and he would charge
to the sound of pipes, harps, and flutes, both treble and
bass. And upon arriving at the land of Miletus, the
dwellings that were on the fields he neither destroyed, nor
burnt, nor did he tore their doors, but would leave them
in place; but the trees and the fruit of the earth
he would destroy, then return [to where he came from].
For since the Milesians prevailed at sea, it was useless
to capture [their city] with his army. As for the houses, the Lydian
was not demolishing them for the following reason: so that the
Milesians would have where to start from to sow and work on the
land, and he could destroy their labor during his invasions.